도널드 올딩 헵 (1904년 7월 22일 – 1985년 8월 20일)은 캐나다의 심리학자로, 신경심리학 분야에서 큰 영향을 미쳤으며, 뉴런의 기능이 학습과 같은 심리적 과정에 어떻게 기여하는지를 이해하고자 했다. 그는 1949년의 고전적 저작 *행동의 조직화*에서 소개한 헵 학습 이론으로 가장 잘 알려져 있다. 그는 신경심리학과 신경망의 아버지로 불려 왔...

Donald O. Hebb

{{Short description|Canadian neuropsychologist (1904–1985)}} {{Infobox scientist | name = Donald Olding Hebb | image = Donald Hebb.gif | image_size = 200 | caption = | birth_date = {{Birth date|1904|7|22|mf=y}} | birth_place = [[Chester, Nova Scotia]], Canada | death_date = {{Death date and age|1985|8|20|1904|7|22|mf=y}} | death_place = Chester, Nova Scotia, Canada | field = Psychology | work_institution = [[Montreal Neurological Institute]],[[Queen's University at Kingston|Queen's University]],[[Yerkes National Primate Research Center|Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology]],[[McGill University]][https://www.mcgill.ca/hebb/biographies/ Biographies of Donald Olding Hebb] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111125121637/http://www.mcgill.ca/hebb/biographies/ |date=November 25, 2011 }} | alma_mater = [[Dalhousie University]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]], 1925), [[McGill University]] ([[Master of Arts|MA]], 1932), [[Harvard University]] ([[PhD]], 1936) | doctoral_advisor = [[Karl Spencer Lashley]] | thesis_title = The innate organization of visual perception in the rat | thesis_year = 1936 | thesis_url = https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1235395715 | doctoral_students = [[Brenda Milner]] | known_for = [[Hebbian theory|Cell assembly theory]] | prizes = [[Fellow of the Royal Society]]{{Cite journal | last1 = Milner | first1 = P. M. | last2 = Milner | first2 = B. | author-link2 = Brenda Milner| doi = 10.1098/rsbm.1996.0012 | doi-access = free| title = Donald Olding Hebb. 22 July 1904-20 August 1985 | journal = [[Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society]] | volume = 42 | pages = 192–204 | year = 1996 | pmid = 11619332| s2cid = 20555128 }} | footnotes = }} {{Neuropsychology}} '''Donald Olding Hebb''' {{post-nominals|country=CAN|FRS}} (July 22, 1904 – August 20, 1985) was a Canadian [[psychologist]] who was influential in the area of [[neuropsychology]], where he sought to understand how the function of [[neuron]]s contributed to psychological processes such as [[learning]]. He is best known for his theory of [[Hebbian theory|Hebbian learning]], which he introduced in his classic 1949 work ''[[The Organization of Behavior]]''.{{cite book|last=Hebb|first=D. O.|title=The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.226341|year=1949|publisher=Wiley and Sons|location=New York|isbn=978-0-471-36727-7|via = [[Internet Archive]]}} He has been described as the father of neuropsychology and [[neural network]]s.Jean-Pierre Didier, Emmanuel Bigand. ''Rethinking Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine: New Technologies Induce New Learning Strategies''. Springer, 2010. {{ISBN|978-2-8178-0033-2}}. He was also part of the now revealed secret agency that tested volunteered solitary confinement prisoners, Putting them through tests that can cause madness and delusion that makes humans love inanimate objects and imagining fake objects/scenarios. A ''[[Review of General Psychology]]'' survey, published in 2002, ranked Hebb as the 19th most cited psychologist of the 20th century.{{cite journal |last1=Haggbloom |first1=Steven J. |last2=Warnick |first2=Renee |last3=Warnick |first3=Jason E. |last4=Jones |first4=Vinessa K. |last5=Yarbrough |first5=Gary L. |last6=Russell |first6=Tenea M. |last7=Borecky |first7=Chris M. |last8=McGahhey |first8=Reagan |last9=Powell |first9=John L. III |last10=Beavers |first10=Jamie |last11=Monte |first11=Emmanuelle |title=The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century. |journal=Review of General Psychology |date=2002 |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=139–152 |doi=10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139|s2cid=145668721 |url=https://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug02/eminent.aspx | display-authors= 8 |citeseerx=10.1.1.586.1913 }} His views on learning described behavior and thought in terms of brain function, explaining cognitive processes in terms of connections between [[neuron assemblies]].

==Early life== Donald Hebb was born in [[Chester, Nova Scotia|Chester]], [[Nova Scotia]], the oldest of four children of Arthur M. and M. Clara (Olding) Hebb, and lived there until the age of 16, when his parents moved to [[Dartmouth, Nova Scotia]].

Hebb's parents were both medical doctors. Donald's mother was heavily influenced by the ideas of [[Maria Montessori]], and she home-schooled him until the age of 8. He performed so well in elementary school that he was promoted to the 7th grade at 10 years of age but, as a result of failing and then repeating the 11th grade in Chester, he graduated from the 12th grade at 16 years of age from Halifax County Academy. (Many or most of the single class of grade 9, 10 and 11 students at the Chester school failed the provincial examinations. Those in 9th and 10th grades were permitted to advance despite their failure but there was no 12th grade in Chester.) He entered [[Dalhousie University]] aiming to become a novelist. He graduated with a [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree in 1925. Afterward, he became a teacher, teaching at his old school in Chester. Later, he worked on a farm in [[Alberta]] and then traveled around, working as a laborer in [[Quebec]].

==Career== In 1928, he became a graduate student at [[McGill University]]. But, at the same time, he was appointed headmaster of Verdun High School in the suburbs of [[Montreal]].{{cite journal |last1=Milner |first1=Peter M. |title=Donald Olding Hebb (1904-1985) |journal=Trends in Neurosciences |date=August 1986 |volume=9 |pages=347–351 |doi=10.1016/0166-2236(86)90107-4 |s2cid=53204563 |url=https://www.cell.com/trends/neurosciences/pdf/0166-2236(86)90107-4.pdf |access-date=23 July 2020}} He worked with two colleagues from the university, Kellogg and Clarke, to improve the situation. He took a more innovative approach to education—for example, assigning more interesting schoolwork and sending anyone misbehaving outside (making schoolwork a privilege). He completed his master's degree in psychology at [[McGill University|McGill]] in 1932 under the direction of the eminent psychologist [[Boris Babkin]]. Hebb's master's thesis, entitled ''Conditioned and Unconditioned Reflexes and Inhibition'', tried to show that skeletal reflexes were due to cellular learning.{{Cite web|url=https://www.mcgill.ca/library-theses/notable-alumni/1931-1960|title=Theses from Notable Alumni, 1931-1960|website=Highlights from McGill Theses and Dissertations|publisher=McGill University Library|access-date=17 January 2019}}

By the beginning of 1934, Hebb's life was in a slump. His wife had died, following a car accident, on his twenty-ninth birthday (July 22, 1933). His work at the Montreal school was going badly. In his words, it was "defeated by the rigidity of the curriculum in Quebec's protestant schools." The focus of study at McGill was more in the direction of education and intelligence, and Hebb was now more interested in physiological psychology and was critical of the methodology of the experiments there.

He decided to leave Montreal and wrote to [[Robert Yerkes]] at Yale, where he was offered a position to study for a [[PhD]]. Babkin, however, convinced Hebb to study instead with [[Karl Lashley]] at the [[University of Chicago]].

In July 1934, Hebb was accepted to study under Karl Lashley at the [[University of Chicago]]. His thesis was titled "The problem of spatial orientation and place learning". Hebb, along with two other students, followed Lashley to [[Harvard|Harvard University]] in September 1935. Here, he had to change his thesis. At Harvard, he did his thesis research on the effects of early visual deprivation upon size and brightness perception in a rat. That is, he raised rats in the dark and some in the light and compared their brains. In 1936, he received his PhD from Harvard.{{Cite web|url=https://archivalcollections.library.mcgill.ca/index.php/donald-olding-hebb-fonds|title=Donald Olding Hebb Fonds, MG1045|website=McGill Archival Collections Catalogue|publisher=McGill University Archives|access-date=17 January 2019}} The following year he worked as a research assistant to Lashley and as a teaching assistant in introductory psychology for [[Edwin G. Boring]] at [[Radcliffe College]]. His Harvard thesis was soon published, and he finished the thesis he started at University of Chicago.

In 1937, Hebb married his second wife, Elizabeth Nichols Donovan. That same year, on a tip from his sister Catherine (herself a PhD student with Babkin at McGill University), he applied to work with [[Wilder Penfield]] at the [[Montreal Neurological Institute]]. Here he researched the effect of brain surgery and injury on human brain function. He saw that the brain of a child could regain partial or full function when a portion of it is removed but that similar damage in an adult could be far more damaging, even catastrophic. From this, he deduced the prominent role that external stimulation played in the thought processes of adults. In fact, the lack of this stimulation, he showed, caused diminished function and sometimes [[hallucination]]s.

He also became critical of the [[Stanford-Binet IQ test|Stanford-Binet]] and [[Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale|Wechsler]] intelligence tests for use with brain surgery patients. These tests were designed to measure overall intelligence, whereas Hebb believed tests should be designed to measure more specific effects that surgery could have had on the patient. Together with N.W. Morton, he created the [[Adult Comprehension Test]] and the [[McGill Picture Anomaly Test|Picture Anomaly Test]].

Putting the Picture Anomaly Test to use, he provided the first indication that the right temporal lobe was involved in visual recognition. He also showed that removal of large parts of the frontal lobe had little effect on intelligence. In fact, in one adult patient, who had a large portion of his frontal lobes removed in order to treat his [[epilepsy]], he noted "a striking post-operative improvement in personality and intellectual capacity." From these sorts of results, he started to believe that the frontal lobes were instrumental in learning only early in life.

In 1939, he was appointed to a teaching position at [[Queen's University at Kingston|Queen's University]]. In order to test his theory of the changing role of the frontal lobes with age, he designed a variable path maze for rats with Kenneth Williams called the [[Hebb-Williams maze]], a method for testing animal intelligence later used in countless studies. He used the maze to test the intelligence of rats blinded at different developmental stages, showing that "there is a lasting effect of infant experience on the problem-solving ability of the adult rat." This became one of the main principles of [[developmental psychology]], later helping those arguing the importance of the proposed [[Head Start Program|Head Start]] programs for preschool children in economically poor neighborhoods.

In 1942, he moved to [[Orange Park, Florida]] to once again work with Karl Lashley who had replaced Yerkes as the Director of the Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology at the [[Yerkes National Primate Research Center]]. Here, studying primate behavior, Hebb developed emotional tests for [[Common chimpanzee|chimpanzees]]. The experiments were somewhat unsuccessful, however because chimpanzees turned out to be hard to teach. During the course of the work there, Hebb wrote ''[[The Organization of Behavior|The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory]]'', his groundbreaking book that set forth the theory that the only way to explain behavior was in terms of brain function.

Afterward, he returned to [[McGill University]] to become a professor of psychology in 1947 and was made chairman of the department in 1948. Here he once again worked with Penfield, but this time through his students, which included [[Mortimer Mishkin]], [[Haldor Enger Rosvold]], and [[Brenda Milner]], all of whom extended his earlier work with Penfield on the human brain.

His wife Elizabeth died in 1962. In 1966, Hebb married his third wife, Margaret Doreen Wright (née Williamson), a widow.

Hebb remained at McGill until retirement in 1972. He remained at McGill after retirement for a few years, in the Department of Psychology as an emeritus professor, conducting a seminar course required of all department graduate students.

In 1977 Hebb retired to his birthplace in Nova Scotia, where he completed his last book, ''Essay on Mind''. He was appointed an honorary professor of psychology at his alma mater, Dalhousie, and regularly participated in colloquia there until his death at 81, in 1985.{{cite journal |last1=Milner |first1=Peter |title=Scientific American |journal=The Mind and Donald O. Hebb |date=January 1993 |volume=268 |issue=1 |pages=124–129|jstor=24941344 }} He was survived by two daughters (both by his second marriage), Mary Ellen Hebb and Jane Hebb Paul.

==Honors and awards== Hebb was a member of both the [[Canadian Psychological Association]] (CPA) and the [[American Psychological Association]] (APA). He was elected President of the CPA in 1953 and of the APA in 1960. He won the APA Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award in 1961.

He was elected a Fellow of the [[Royal Society of Canada]] and a [[List of fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1966|Fellow of the Royal Society]] of London in March 1966.{{cite web| url= http://www2.royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqPos=0&dsqSearch=%28Surname%3D%27hebb%27%29| title= Library and Archive Catalogue| publisher= Royal Society| access-date= 17 November 2010| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110429213914/http://www2.royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqPos=0&dsqSearch=%28Surname%3D%27hebb%27%29| archive-date=2011-04-29}}{{cite web |title=About D.O. Hebb |url=https://www.mcgill.ca/psychology/events-colloquia-0/hebb-lecture-series/about-do-hebb |website=McGill University|access-date=28 August 2020}}

He received an honorary doctorate from 15 universities, including in 1961 from [[University of Chicago]],{{cite web | url=https://convocation.uchicago.edu/traditions/honorary-degree-recipients/past-honorary-degree-recipients/ | title=Past Honorary Degree Recipients | Convocation | the University of Chicago }} in 1965 from [[Dalhousie University]]https://www.dal.ca/academics/convocation/history_traditions/honorary_degree_recipients/hon_degree_1892_1999.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401115142/https://www.dal.ca/academics/convocation/history_traditions/honorary_degree_recipients/hon_degree_1892_1999.html |date=2019-04-01 }} (Dalhousie University website) and in 1975 from [[Concordia University]].{{Cite web|url=http://archives.concordia.ca/hebb|title=Honorary Degree Citation - Donald Olding Hebb* {{!}} Concordia University Archives|website=archives.concordia.ca|access-date=2016-04-07|archive-date=2015-10-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002180140/http://archives.concordia.ca/hebb}}

The [[CPA Donald O. Hebb Award for Distinguished Contributions to Psychology as a Science|Donald O. Hebb Award]], named in his honor, is awarded by the [[Canadian Psychological Association]] to distinguished Canadian psychologists. The award is presented yearly to a person who has made a significant contribution to promoting the discipline of psychology as a science by conducting research, by teaching and leadership, or as a spokesperson. The inaugural award was presented to Hebb in 1980.{{Cite web|title = Canadian Psychological Association > CPA Award Descriptions and Past Recipients - www.cpa.ca|url = https://www.cpa.ca/aboutcpa/cpaawards/awarddescriptions|website = www.cpa.ca|access-date = 2015-06-24}}

In 2011, he was posthumously inducted into the Halifax, Nova Scotia, [[Discovery Centre]]'s Hall of Fame.https://thediscoverycentre.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Discovery-Awards-Backgrounder-2018.pdf (Discovery Centre website) At a 2011 meeting of the executive council of the [[Committee for Skeptical Inquiry]] (CSI), Hebb was selected for inclusion in CSI's [[Committee for Skeptical Inquiry#The Pantheon of Skeptics|Pantheon of Skeptics]], an award given to deceased fellows of CSI.{{cite web |title=The Pantheon of Skeptics |url=http://www.csicop.org/about/the_pantheon_of_skeptics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170131054129/http://www.csicop.org/about/the_pantheon_of_skeptics |archive-date=31 January 2017 |access-date=30 April 2017 |website=CSI |publisher=[[Committee for Skeptical Inquiry]]}}

His archives, including records relating to research and teaching activities, are held by the [[McGill University Archives]], [[McGill University]], in [[Montreal]].

==''The Organization of Behavior'' (1949)==

{{main|The Organization of Behavior}} ''The Organization of Behavior'' is considered Hebb's most significant contribution to the field of neuroscience. A combination of his years of work in brain surgery mixed with his study of human behavior, it finally brought together the two realms of human perception that for a long time could not be connected properly, that is, it connected the biological function of the brain as an organ together with the higher function of the mind.

In 1929, [[Hans Berger]] discovered that the brain exhibits continuous electrical activity and cast doubt on the [[Ivan Pavlov|Pavlovian model of perception]] and response because, now, there appeared to be something going on in the brain even without much stimulus.

At the same time, there were many mysteries. For example, if there was a method for the brain to recognize a circle, how does it recognize circles of various sizes or imperfect roundness? To accommodate every single possible circle that could exist, the brain would need a far greater capacity than it has.

Another theory, the [[Gestalt psychology|Gestalt theory]], stated that signals to the brain established a sort of field. The form of this field depended only on the pattern of the inputs, but it still could not explain how this field was understood by the mind.

The behaviorist theories at the time did well at explaining how the processing of patterns happened. However, they could not account for how these patterns made it into the mind.

Hebb combined up-to-date data about behavior and the brain into a single theory. And, while the understanding of the anatomy of the brain did not advance much since the development of the older theories on the operation of the brain, he was still able to piece together a theory that got a lot of the important functions of the brain right.

Hebb's theory became known as [[Hebbian theory]] and the models which follow this theory are said to exhibit "Hebbian learning." He proposed a neurophysiological account of learning and memory based in a simple principle:{{cite journal |last1=Keysers |first1=Christian |last2=Gazzola |first2=Valeria |title=Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences |journal=Hebbian Learning and Predictive Mirror Neurons for Actions, Sensations and Emotions |date=June 5, 2014 |volume=369 |issue=1644 |pages=1–11|jstor=24500757 }}

{{blockquote|When an axon of cell A is near enough to excite cell B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing it, some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells such that A's efficiency, as one of the cells firing B, is increased.}}

This is often paraphrased as "Neurons that fire together wire together."{{Cite book|title=How people learn: designing effective training to improve employee performance|last=Shackleton-Jones, Nick|isbn=978-0-7494-8471-2|location=London, United Kingdom|oclc=1098213554|date = 2019-05-03}} It is commonly referred to as Hebb's Law.

The combination of neurons which could be grouped together as one processing unit, Hebb referred to as "cell-assemblies". And their combination of connections made up the ever-changing algorithm which dictated the brain's response to stimuli.

Not only did Hebb's model for the working of the mind influence how psychologists understood the processing of stimuli within the mind but also it opened up the way for the creation of computational machines that mimicked the biological processes of a living nervous system. And while the dominant form of synaptic transmission in the nervous system was later found to be chemical, modern [[artificial neural network]]s are still based on the transmission of signals via electrical impulses that Hebbian theory was first designed around.

==Theories of education==

Hebb was instrumental in defining psychology as a biological science by identifying thought as the integrated activity of the brain.{{Cite journal|title = The Legacy of Donald O. Hebb: More than the Hebb Synapse|last1 = Brown|first1 = R.M.|date = 2003|journal = Nature Reviews Neuroscience|doi = 10.1038/nrn1257|pmid = 14682362|last2 = Milner|first2 = P.M.|issue = 12|volume = 4|pages = 1013–1019|s2cid = 205499831}} His views on learning described behavior and thought in terms of brain function, explaining cognitive processes in terms of connections between neuron assemblies. These ideas played a large part in his views on education and learning.

Hebb viewed motivation and learning as related properties. He believed that everything in the brain was interrelated and worked together. His theory was that everything we experience in our environment fires a set of neurons called a cell assembly. This cell assembly is the brain's thoughts or ideas. These cell assemblies then work together to form phase sequences, which are streams of thoughts.{{Cite book|title = The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory|last = Hebb|first = D.O.|publisher = John Wiley & Sons|year = 1949|location = New York, NY}} Once these cell assemblies and phase sequences are formed, they can be activated by stimulation from the environment. Therefore, the more stimulating and rich the environment, the more the cell assemblies grow and learn. This theory played into his beliefs in education. Hebb believed that the environment was very important to learning in children. Children learn by building up these cell assemblies and phase sequences. An enriched environment with varied opportunities for sensory and motor experiences contribute to children developing the cell assemblies and phase sequences necessary for continued learning in adulthood. To attempt to prove this, Hebb and his daughters raised pet rats at home. By raising them in an enriched environment, the rats showed improved maze learning in adulthood.{{Cite journal|title = The Life and Work of Donald Olding Hebb|last = Brown|first = R.E.|date = 2006|journal = Acta Neuroligica Taiwanica|pmid = 16871901|issue = 2|volume = 15|pages = 127–142}} This research into environmental enrichment contributed to the development of the Head Start Program used today.

Head Start is a program for preschool children in low-income families. The aim of the program is to prepare children for success in school through an early learning program providing cognitively stimulating educational activities. According to the findings in a study on Head Start participation and school readiness, full-time Head Start participation was associated with higher academic skills in children of less-educated parents.{{Cite journal|title = Head Start Participation and School Readiness: Evidence from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort|last1 = RaeHyuck|first1 = L.|date = 2014|journal = Developmental Psychology|doi = 10.1037/a0032280|pmid = 23527496|last2 = Fuhua|first2 = Z.|volume = 50|issue = 1|pages = 202–215|pmc=4050643}}

Another long-term study by Hart and Risley tracked 42 children and their families over two years. The study focused on early language acquisition and the role of the home and family in the growth of word learning and language development. The results of their study showed that two of the most important aspects in language acquisition are the economic advantages of the children's homes and the frequency of language experiences. The study demonstrated that children of lower socioeconomic status homes, with fewer economic resources, learn fewer words and acquire vocabulary more slowly than children of professional parents with a higher socioeconomic status with access to more varied and enriched vocabulary experiences.{{Cite book|title = Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experience of Young American Children|last1 = Hart|first1 = B.|publisher = Brookes Publishing Co|year = 1995|last2 = Risley|first2 = T.R.|location = Baltimore, MD}}

Hebb believed that providing an enriched environment for childhood learning would benefit adult learning as well, since a second type of learning occurs as adults. This second type of learning is a more rapid and insightful learning because the cell assemblies and phase sequences have already been created and now can be rearranged in any number of ways.{{Cite book|title = An Introduction to Theories of Learning|last1 = Olson|first1 = H.H.|publisher = Pearson|year = 2013|last2 = Hergenhahn|first2 = B.R.|location = Upper Saddle River, NJ}} The [[Hebbian theory]] of learning implies that every experience a person encounters becomes set into the network of brain cells. Then, each time a certain action or thought is repeated, the connection between neurons is strengthened, changing the brain and strengthening the learning. An individual is, in essence, training their brain. The more challenging new experiences a person has and practices, the more new connections are created in their brain.

===Hebb as an educator=== As a professor at McGill, he believed that one could not teach motivation, but rather create the conditions necessary for students under which to do their study and research. One could train them to write, help them choose a problem to study, and even help keep them from being distracted, but the motivation and passion for research and study had to come from the students themselves. He believed that students should be evaluated on their ability to think and create rather than their ability to memorize and reprocess older ideas.

Hebb believed in a very objective study of the human mind, more as a study of a biological science. This attitude toward psychology and the way it is taught made McGill University a prominent center of psychological study.

Hebb also came up with the [[A/S ratio]], a value that measures the brain complexity of an organism.

===Controversial research===

Hebb's name has often been invoked in discussions of the involvement of psychological researchers in [[interrogation techniques]], including the use of [[sensory deprivation]], because of his research into this field. Speaking at a Harvard symposium on sensory deprivation in June 1958, Hebb is quoted as remarking:

{{blockquote| The work that we have done at McGill University began, actually, with the problem of [[brainwashing]]. We were not permitted to say so in the first publishing.... The chief impetus, of course, was the dismay at the kind of "confessions" being produced at the Russian Communist trials. "Brainwashing" was a term that came a little later, applied to Chinese procedures. We did not know what the Russian procedures were, but it seemed that they were producing some peculiar changes of attitude. How? One possible factor was perceptual isolation and we concentrated on that.Solomon, P., Kubzansky, Philip E., Leiderman, P. Herbert, Mendelson, Jack H., Trumbull, Richard, & Wexler, Donald, Eds. (1961). Sensory Deprivation: A Symposium Held at Harvard Medical School. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press. }}

Recent research has argued that Hebb's sensory deprivation research was funded by and coordinated with the [[CIA]] (with the CIA intending to use the research to develop new interrogation and torture techniques).{{cite book |last1=McCoy |first1=Alfred W. |title=A question of torture: CIA interrogation, from the Cold War to the War on Terror |date=2006 |location=New York |isbn=0-8050-8248-4 |edition=First Holt paperback}} Some of this research was done in secret, and the results were initially shared only with United States authorities. Some of this research involved volunteers who spent hours in sensory deprivation conditions that some argue should be considered [[torture]],{{cite web|url=https://original.antiwar.com/engelhardt/2009/06/07/pioneers-of-torture/|title=Pioneers of Torture|first=Tom|last=Engelhardt|date=8 June 2009|website=antiwar.com}} although the subjects in his studies were university student volunteers,{{Cite journal | last1 = Heron | first1 = W. | doi = 10.1038/scientificamerican0157-52 | title = The Pathology of Boredom | journal = Scientific American | volume = 196 | issue = 1 | pages = 52–56 | year = 1957 | bibcode = 1957SciAm.196a..52H }} not patients, and were free to quit the experiment at any time.

==Notable students== {{columns-list|colwidth=22em|

[[Michael C. Corballis]]
[[Leo Goldberger]]
[[Stevan Harnad]]
[[Doreen Kimura]]
[[Ronald Melzack]]
[[Brenda Milner]]
[[Mortimer Mishkin]]
[[Lynn Nadel]]
[[James Olds]]
[[Michael Posner (psychologist)|Michael Posner]]
[[Case Vanderwolf]] }}

==Selected publications==

''The Organization of Behaviour''. 1949. John Wiley & Sons. {{ISBN|978-0-471-36727-7}}
{{cite book |title= Essay on Mind |year= 1980 |place = Hillsdale, New Jersey |publisher= Lawrence Erlbaum |url = https://archive.org/details/essayonmind0000hebb |url-access = registration |ISBN =978-0-89859-017-3 |via = [[Internet Archive]]}}.
''The Conceptual Nervous System''. 1982. Pergamon Press. {{ISBN|008-027418-8}}: a collection of 21 papers by Hebb, with a complete list of his publications, edited by Henry A. Buchtel.
{{cite book |title=A Textbook of Psychology |author= |year= 1958 |place = Philadelphia and London |publisher= W. B. Saunders and Co. |ISBN=978-0-7872-1103-5 |url= https://archive.org/details/textbookofpsycho00hebb |via = [[Internet Archive]]}}

==References== {{Reflist}}

==Further reading== {{Library resources box|by=yes|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|wikititle=Donald Hebb}}

{{Cite journal | last1 = Klein | first1 = R. M. | s2cid = 145251164 | doi = 10.1037/h0087295 | title = The Hebb legacy | journal = Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology | volume = 53 | pages = 1–3| year = 1999 }}
{{Cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia=Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology | edition=2 | year=2001 | article=Hebb, Donald O. (1904-1985)}}
{{Cite web | title=Donald Hebb Biography | work=Great Canadian Psychology Website | url=https://www.psych.ualberta.ca/~gcpws/Hebb/Hebb.html | access-date=2006-03-09}}
{{Cite news | title=Did he or didn't he? The Canadian accused of inventing CIA torture | work=The Globe and Mail |date = 17 November 2007| url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/incoming/did-he-or-didnt-he-the-canadian-accused-of-inventing-cia-torture/article698026/ | access-date=2016-01-08}}
{{Cite journal |author1=Richard E. Brown |author2=Peter M. Milner | title=The Legacy Of Donald O. Hebb: More Than The Hebb Synapse | journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |date=December 2003 | volume=4 | pages=1013–1019 | doi= 10.1038/nrn1257 | pmid=14682362 | issue=12|s2cid=205499831 }}
{{Cite web | title=Donald Hebb (1904 - 1985) | work=Harnad E-Print Archive and Psycoloquy and BBS Journal Archives | url=https://www.ecs.soton.ac.uk/~harnad/Archive/hebb.html | access-date=2006-03-18}}
{{Cite journal | author=Alfred W. McCoy | title=Science in Dachau's Shadow: Hebb, Beecher, and the Development of CIA Psychological Torture and Modern Medical Ethics | journal=Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences | volume=43 | issue=4 | pages=401–417 | year=2007 | doi=10.1002/jhbs.20271 | pmid=17912716 | doi-access=free }}

== External links ==

{{Internet Archive author |sname= Donald Olding Hebb}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hebb, Donald Olding}} [[Category:1904 births]] [[Category:1985 deaths]] [[Category:20th-century American psychologists]] [[Category:Canadian cognitive neuroscientists]] [[Category:Neuropsychologists]] [[Category:Canadian people of German descent]] [[Category:Canadian people of Scottish descent]] [[Category:Chancellors of McGill University]] [[Category:History of neuroscience]] [[Category:People from Lunenburg County, Nova Scotia]] [[Category:Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni]] [[Category:Academic staff of McGill University]] [[Category:Canadian expatriate academics in the United States]] [[Category:Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences]] [[Category:Presidents of the American Psychological Association]] [[Category:Presidents of the Canadian Psychological Association]] [[Category:20th-century Canadian psychologists]] [[Category:APA Distinguished Scientific Award for an Early Career Contribution to Psychology recipients]] [[Category:Canadian fellows of the Royal Society]] [[Category:American fellows of the Royal Society]]