{{Short description|Coordinates comprising a distance and an angle}} [[Image:Examples of Polar Coordinates.svg|thumb|Points in the polar coordinate system with pole ''O'' and polar axis ''L''. In green, the point with radial coordinate 3 and angular coordinate 60 degrees or (3,{{nbsp}}60°). In blue, the point (4,{{nbsp}}210°).]]

In [[mathematics]], the '''polar coordinate system''' specifies a given [[point (mathematics)|point]] in a [[plane (mathematics)|plane]] by using a distance and an angle as its two [[coordinate system|coordinates]]. These are *the point's distance from a reference point called the ''[[pole and polar|pole]]'', and *the point's direction from the pole relative to the direction of the ''polar axis'', a [[ray (geometry)|ray]] drawn from the pole.

The distance from the pole is called the ''radial coordinate'', ''radial distance'' or simply ''radius'', and the angle is called the ''angular coordinate'', ''polar angle'', or ''[[azimuth]]''.{{r|brown}} The pole is analogous to the origin in a [[Cartesian coordinate system]].

Polar coordinates are most appropriate in any context where the phenomenon being considered is inherently tied to direction and length from a center point in a plane, such as [[spiral]]s. Planar physical systems with bodies moving around a central point, or phenomena originating from a central point, are often simpler and more intuitive to model using polar coordinates.

The polar coordinate system is extended to three dimensions in two ways: the [[cylindrical coordinate system]] adds a second distance coordinate, and the [[spherical coordinate system]] adds a second angular coordinate.

[[Grégoire de Saint-Vincent]] and [[Bonaventura Cavalieri]] independently introduced the system's concepts in the mid-17th century, though the actual term ''polar coordinates'' has been attributed to [[Gregorio Fontana]] in the 18th century. The initial motivation for introducing the polar system was the study of [[circular motion|circular]] and [[orbital motion]].

==History== [[File:Head of Hipparchus (cropped).jpg |thumb|upright=0.8|Hipparchus, Greek astronomer]] The concepts of angle and radius were already used by ancient peoples of the first millennium [[Before Christ|BC]]. The Greek astronomer [[Hipparchus]] (190–120 BC) created a table of [[chord (geometry)|chord]] functions giving the length of the chord for each angle, and there are references to his using polar coordinates in establishing stellar positions.{{Cite web |last=Friendly |first=Michael |date=August 24, 2009 |title=Milestones in the History of Thematic Cartography, Statistical Graphics, and Data Visualization |url=http://www.math.yorku.ca/SCS/Gallery/milestone/milestone.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926124138/http://www.math.yorku.ca/SCS/Gallery/milestone/milestone.pdf |archive-date=September 26, 2018 |access-date=July 23, 2016}} In ''[[On Spirals]]'', Greek mathematician [[Archimedes]] describes [[Archimedean spiral|his spiral]], a function whose radius depends on the angle. The Greek work, however, did not extend to a full coordinate system.

From the 8th century AD onward, astronomers developed methods for approximating and calculating the direction to [[Mecca]] ([[qibla]])—and its distance—from any location on the Earth.{{r|king}} From the 9th century onward they were using [[spherical trigonometry]] and [[map projection]] methods to determine these quantities accurately. The calculation is essentially the conversion of the [[Geodetic coordinates#Coordinates|equatorial polar coordinates]] of Mecca (i.e. its [[longitude]] and [[latitude]]) to its polar coordinates (i.e. its qibla and distance) relative to a system whose reference meridian is the [[great circle]] through the given location and the Earth's poles and whose polar axis is the line through the location and its [[antipodal point]].{{harvp|King|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AMOQZfrZq-EC&pg=PA169 169]}}. The calculations were as accurate as could be achieved under the limitations imposed by their assumption that the Earth was a perfect sphere.

There are various accounts of the introduction of polar coordinates as part of a formal coordinate system. The full history of the subject is described in [[Harvard University|Harvard]] professor [[Julian Lowell Coolidge]]'s ''Origin of Polar Coordinates.'' Mathematicians from [[Jesuits|Jesuit]], [[Grégoire de Saint-Vincent]], and Italian [[Bonaventura Cavalieri]] independently introduced the concepts in the mid-seventeenth century. Saint-Vincent wrote about them privately in 1625 and published his work in 1647, while Cavalieri published his in 1635, with a corrected version appearing in 1653. Cavalieri first used polar coordinates to solve a problem relating to the area within an [[Archimedean spiral]]. French mathematician [[Blaise Pascal]] subsequently used polar coordinates to calculate the length of [[parabola|parabolic arcs]].{{r|coolidge}}

In ''[[Method of Fluxions]]'' (written 1671, published 1736), English mathematician [[Isaac Newton|Sir Isaac Newton]] examined the transformations between polar coordinates, which he referred to as the "Seventh Manner; For Spirals", and nine other coordinate systems.{{r|boyer}} He is credited with originating the polar coordinate system in its analytic form and for originating [[bipolar coordinates]] in a strict sense.{{Cite book |last=Boyer |first=Carl B. |author-link=Carl Benjamin Boyer |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofanalyti0000boye/page/142 |title=History of Analytic Geometry |publisher=[[Scripta Mathematica]] |year=1956 |pages=142–146}} In the journal ''[[Acta Eruditorum]]'' (1691), Swiss mathematician [[Jacob Bernoulli]] used a system with a point on a line, called the ''pole'' and ''polar axis'' respectively. Coordinates were specified by the distance from the pole and the angle from the ''polar axis''. Bernoulli's work extended to the calculation of the [[Radius of curvature (mathematics)|radius of curvature]] of curves expressed in these coordinates.

The term ''polar coordinates'' was attributed to [[Gregorio Fontana]] and used by 18th-century Italian writers. The term appeared in [[English language|English]] in [[George Peacock (mathematician)|George Peacock]]'s 1816 translation of [[Sylvestre François Lacroix|Lacroix]]'s ''Differential and Integral Calculus''.{{Cite web |last=Miller |first=Jeff |title=Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics |url=http://jeff560.tripod.com/p.html |access-date=2006-09-10}}{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=David Eugene |title=History of Mathematics, Vol II |publisher=Ginn and Co. |year=1925 |location=Boston |page=324}} [[Alexis Clairaut]] was the first to think of polar coordinates in three dimensions, and [[Leonhard Euler]] was the first to actually develop them.

==Conventions== [[Image:Polar graph paper.svg|thumb|A polar grid with several angles, increasing in counterclockwise orientation and labelled in degrees]] The radial coordinate is often denoted by r or \rho ([[rho]]). The angular coordinate is denoted by \varphi ([[phi]]), specified by [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] standard [[ISO 31-11|31-11]] (now [[ISO/IEC 80000|80000-2:2019]]){{r|iso}}{{pn|date=November 2025}}, or \theta ([[theta]]) in mathematical literature oftentimes.{{r|vpr}}

Angles in polar notation are generally expressed in either [[degree (angle)|degree]]s or [[radian]]s (2[[pi|{{pi}}]] rad being equal to 360°). Degrees are traditionally used in [[navigation]], [[surveying]], and many applied disciplines, while radians are more common in mathematics and mathematical [[physics]].{{Cite book |last1=Serway |first1=Raymond A. |title=Principles of Physics |last2=Jewett Jr., John W. |publisher=Brooks/Cole—Thomson Learning |year=2005 |isbn=0-534-49143-X}}

The angle \varphi is defined to start at 0° from a ''reference direction'', and to increase for rotations in either [[clockwise]] (↻) or counterclockwise (↺) orientation. For example, in mathematics, the reference direction is usually drawn as a [[ray (geometry)|ray]] from the pole horizontally to the right, and the polar angle increases to positive angles for ccw rotations, whereas in navigation ([[bearing (navigation)|bearing]], [[heading (navigation)|heading]]) the 0°-heading is drawn vertically upwards and the angle increases for cw rotations. The polar angles decrease towards negative values for rotations in the respective opposite orientations.

===Uniqueness of polar coordinates=== Adding any number of full [[turn (geometry)|turns]] (360°) to the angular coordinate does not change the corresponding direction. Similarly, any polar coordinate is identical to the coordinate with the negative radial component and the opposite direction (adding 180° to the polar angle). Therefore, the same point (r,\varphi) can be expressed with an infinite number of different polar coordinates (r,\varphi + n \times 360^\circ) and (-r, \varphi + 180^\circ + n \times 360^\circ) = (-r, \varphi + (2n+1) \times 180^\circ) , where n is an arbitrary [[integer]].{{Cite web |date=2006-04-13 |title=Polar Coordinates and Graphing |url=http://campuses.fortbendisd.com/campuses/documents/Teacher/2012%5Cteacher_20120507_1147.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822034840/http://campuses.fortbendisd.com/campuses/documents/Teacher/2012%5Cteacher_20120507_1147.pdf |archive-date=August 22, 2016 |access-date=2006-09-22}} Moreover, the pole itself can be expressed as (0, \varphi) for any angle \varphi .{{Cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Theodore |title=Precalculus: With Unit-Circle Trigonometry |last2=David Cohen |last3=David Sklar |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |year=2005 |isbn=0-534-40230-5 |edition=Fourth}}

Where a unique representation is needed for any point besides the pole, it is usual to limit r to positive numbers ( r > 0 ) and \varphi to either the [[interval (mathematics)|interval]] [0,360^\circ) or the interval (-180^\circ, 180^\circ] , which in radians are [0,2\pi) or (-\pi,\pi] .{{r|st}} Another convention, in reference to the usual [[codomain]] of the [[inverse trigonometric functions|arctan function]], is to allow for arbitrary nonzero real values of the radial component and restrict the polar angle to (-90^\circ, 90^\circ] . In all cases, a unique azimuth for the pole r = 0 must be chosen, e.g., \varphi = 0 .

==Converting between polar and Cartesian coordinates== [[Image:Polar to cartesian.svg|thumb|A diagram illustrating the relationship between polar and Cartesian coordinates.]]The polar coordinates r and \varphi can be converted to the Cartesian coordinates x and y by using the [[trigonometric function]]s of [[sine and cosine]], respectively:{{r|vpr}} \begin{align} x &= r \cos \varphi, \ y &= r \sin \varphi. \end{align}

The Cartesian coordinates x and y can be converted to polar coordinates r and \varphi , with r \ge 0 and \varphi in the interval (-\pi,\pi] by:{{r|torrence}} \begin{align} r &= \sqrt{x^2 + y^2} \ \varphi &= \operatorname{atan2}(y, x), \end{align} where [[atan2]] is a common variation on the [[arctangent]] function defined as \operatorname{atan2}(y, x) = \begin{cases} \arctan\left(\frac{y}{x}\right) & \mbox{if } x > 0\ \arctan\left(\frac{y}{x}\right) + \pi & \mbox{if } x < 0 \mbox{ and } y \ge 0\ \arctan\left(\frac{y}{x}\right) - \pi & \mbox{if } x < 0 \mbox{ and } y < 0\ \frac{\pi}{2} & \mbox{if } x = 0 \mbox{ and } y > 0\ -\frac{\pi}{2} & \mbox{if } x = 0 \mbox{ and } y < 0\ \text{undefined} & \mbox{if } x = 0 \mbox{ and } y = 0. \end{cases}

If ''r'' is calculated first as above, then this formula for ''φ'' may be stated more simply using the [[arccosine]] function: \varphi = \begin{cases} \arccos\left(\frac{x}{r}\right) & \mbox{if } y \ge 0 \mbox{ and } r \neq 0 \ -\arccos\left(\frac{x}{r}\right) & \mbox{if } y < 0 \ \text{undefined} & \mbox{if } r = 0. \end{cases}

===Complex numbers=== {{multiple image | image1 = Complex number illustration modarg.svg | caption1 = An illustration of a complex number {{math|''z''}} plotted on the complex plane | image2 = Euler's formula.svg | caption2 = An illustration of a complex number plotted on the complex plane using [[Euler's formula]] | total_width = 400 }} A [[complex number]] consists of real numbers x and y , as well as an [[imaginary number]] i^2 = -1 , which can be written as z = x + iy . Every complex number represents a point in the [[complex plane]], thereby expressible by specifying either the point's Cartesian coordinates (called rectangular or Cartesian form) or the point's polar coordinates (called polar form).{{r|young}}

In polar form, the distance r and angle coordinate \varphi are often referred to as the number's magnitude of [[absolute value|modulus]] and [[Argument (complex analysis)|argument]], respectively. This can be obtained from a complex number z = x + iy , represented in rectangular form as, into a polar form, by substituting x = r \cos \varphi and y = r \sin \varphi :{{r|young}} z = r(\cos\varphi + i\sin\varphi) = re^{i\varphi}. The last expression is derived from [[Euler's formula]], where e is [[e (mathematical constant)|Euler's number]] approximately 2.718, and \varphi —expressed in radians—is the [[principal value]] of the complex number function [[argument (complex analysis)|arg]] applied to z = x + iy .{{r|smith}} To convert between the rectangular and polar forms of a complex number, the conversion formulae given above can be used. Equivalent are the [[Cis (mathematics)|cis]]—a function denotes \cos \varphi + i \sin \varphi —and [[angle notation]]s: z = r \operatorname\mathrm{cis} \varphi = r \angle \varphi .

For the operations of [[multiplication]], [[division (mathematics)|division]], [[exponentiation]], and [[root extraction]] of complex numbers, it is generally much simpler to work with complex numbers expressed in polar form rather than rectangular form. From the laws of exponentiation:

• Multiplication: r_0 e^{i\varphi_0}, r_1 e^{i\varphi_1} = r_0 r_1 e^{i\left(\varphi_0 + \varphi_1\right)}
• Division: \frac{r_0 e^{i\varphi_0}}{r_1 e^{i\varphi_1}} = \frac{r_0}{r_1}e^{i(\varphi_0 - \varphi_1)}
• Exponentiation or [[de Moivre's formula]]: \left(re^{i\varphi}\right)^n = r^n e^{in\varphi}
• Root Extraction or principal root: \sqrt[n]{re^{i\varphi}} = \sqrt[n]{r} e^{i\varphi \over n}

==Polar equation of a curve== [[File:Cartesian to polar.gif|thumb|A curve on the Cartesian plane can be mapped into polar coordinates. In this animation, y = \sin (6!\cdot!x) + 2 is mapped onto r = \sin (6!\cdot!\theta) + 2. Click on image for details.]]The equation defining a [[plane curve]] expressed in polar coordinates is known as a ''polar equation''. In many cases, such an equation can simply be specified by defining ''r'' as a [[function (mathematics)|function]] of ''φ''. The resulting curve then consists of points of the form (''r''(''φ''), ''φ'') and can be regarded as the [[graph of a function|graph]] of the polar function ''r''. Note that, in contrast to Cartesian coordinates, the independent variable ''φ'' is the ''second'' entry in the [[ordered pair]].

Different forms of [[symmetry]] can be deduced from the equation of a polar function ''r'':

• If {{math|1=''r''(−''φ'') = ''r''(''φ'')}} the curve will be symmetrical about the horizontal (0°/180°) ray;
• If {{math|1=''r''(''π'' − ''φ'') = ''r''(''φ'')}} it will be symmetric about the vertical (90°/270°) ray:
• If {{math|1=''r''(''φ'' − α) = ''r''(''φ'')}} it will be [[rotational symmetry|rotationally symmetric]] by α clockwise and counterclockwise about the pole.

Because of the circular nature of the polar coordinate system, many curves can be described by a rather simple polar equation, whereas their Cartesian form is much more intricate. Among the best known of these curves are the [[Rose (mathematics)|polar rose]], [[Archimedean spiral]], [[Lemniscate of Bernoulli|lemniscate]], [[limaçon]], and [[cardioid]].

For the circle, line, and polar rose below, it is understood that there are no restrictions on the domain and range of the curve.

===Circle=== [[Image:circle r=1.svg|thumb|right|A circle with equation {{math|1=''r''(''φ'') = 1}}]] The general equation for a circle with a center at (r_0, \gamma) and radius ''a'' is r^2 - 2 r r_0 \cos(\varphi - \gamma) + r_0^2 = a^2.

This can be simplified in various ways, to conform to more specific cases, such as the equation r(\varphi)=a for a circle with a center at the pole and radius ''a''.{{Cite web |last=Claeys |first=Johan |title=Polar coordinates |url=http://www.ping.be/~ping1339/polar.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060427230725/http://www.ping.be/~ping1339/polar.htm |archive-date=2006-04-27 |access-date=2006-05-25}}

When {{math|1=''r''0 = ''a''}} or the origin lies on the circle, the equation becomes r = 2 a\cos(\varphi - \gamma).

In the general case, the equation can be solved for {{math|''r''}}, giving r = r_0 \cos(\varphi - \gamma) + \sqrt{a^2 - r_0^2 \sin^2(\varphi - \gamma)} The solution with a minus sign in front of the square root gives the same curve.

===Conic sections=== {{main|Conic section}} [[Image:Elps-slr.svg|thumb|Ellipse, showing semi-latus rectum]] A [[conic section]] with one focus on the pole and the other somewhere on the 0° ray (so that the conic's [[semi-major axis|major axis]] lies along the polar axis) is given by: r = { \ell\over {1 - \epsilon \cos \varphi}} where \epsilon is the [[eccentricity (mathematics)|eccentricity]] and \ell is the [[semi-latus rectum]] (the perpendicular distance at a focus from the major axis to the curve). If \epsilon > 1 , this equation defines a [[hyperbola]]; if \epsilon = 1 , it defines a [[parabola]]; and if \epsilon < 1 , it defines an [[ellipse]]. The special case \epsilon = 0 of the latter results in a circle of the radius \ell. {{Clear}}

===Line=== ''Radial'' lines (those running through the pole) are represented by the equation \varphi = \gamma, where \gamma is the angle of elevation of the line; that is, \varphi = \arctan m, where m is the [[slope]] of the line in the Cartesian coordinate system. The non-radial line that crosses the radial line \varphi = \gamma [[perpendicular]]ly at the point (r_0, \gamma) has the equation r(\varphi) = r_0 \sec(\varphi - \gamma).

Otherwise stated (r_0, \gamma) is the point in which the tangent intersects the imaginary circle of radius r_0

===Polar rose=== {{main|Rose (mathematics)}} [[Image:Rose 2sin(4theta).svg|thumb|right|A polar rose with equation {{math|1=''r''(''φ'') {{=}} 2 sin 4''φ''}}]] A [[rose (mathematics)|polar rose]] is a mathematical curve that looks like a petaled flower, and that can be expressed as one of two distinct polar equations:{{r|abd}} \begin{align} r(\varphi) &= a\sin\left(k\varphi\right), \ r(\varphi) &= a\cos\left(k\varphi\right). \end{align} The cosine and sine forms are not equivalent, but the difference is only a rotation of the resulting curve. Both are special cases of {{math|''r''(''φ'') {{=}} ''a'' cos(''kφ + γ'')}}, with {{math|''γ''}} determining the [[phase (waves)|phase]] and equivalently the rotation. If {{math|1=''k''}} is an integer, these equations will produce a {{math|1=''k''}}-petaled rose if {{math|1=''k''}} is [[even and odd numbers|odd]], or a 2{{math|1=''k''}}-petaled rose if {{math|1=''k''}} is even.{{r|cr}} If {{math|1=''k''}} is rational, but not an integer, a rose-like shape may form, but with overlapping petals. Note that these equations never define a rose with 2, 6, 10, 14, etc. petals. The [[variable (math)|variable]] {{math|''a''}} directly represents the length or amplitude of the petals of the rose, while {{math|1=''k''}} relates to their [[spatial frequency]]. {{Clear}}

===Archimedean spiral=== {{main|Archimedean spiral}} [[File:Spiral of Archimedes.svg|thumb|right|One arm of an Archimedean spiral with equation {{math|1=''r''(''φ'') = ''φ'' / 2''π''}} for {{math|0 < ''φ'' < 6''π''}}]] The [[Archimedean spiral]] is a spiral discovered by [[Archimedes]], which can also be expressed as a simple polar equation. It is represented by the equation r(\varphi) = a + b\varphi. Changing the parameter ''a'' will turn the spiral, while ''b'' controls the distance between the arms, which for a given spiral is always constant. The Archimedean spiral has two arms, one for {{math|''φ'' > 0}} and one for {{math|''φ'' < 0}}. The two arms are smoothly connected at the pole. If {{math|1=''a'' = 0}}, taking the mirror image of one arm across the 90°/270° line will yield the other arm. This curve is notable as one of the first curves, after the [[conic section]]s, to be described in a mathematical treatise, and as a prime example of a curve best defined by a polar equation. {{Clear}}

===Quadratrix=== {{main|Quadratrix of Hippias}} [[File:Quadratrix animation.gif|thumb]]

A quadratrix in the first quadrant (x, y) is a curve with y = \rho \sin \theta equal to the fraction of the quarter circle with radius r determined by the radius through the curve point. Since this fraction is:{{cite book | last1 = Lucas | first1 = N. H. | last2 = Bunt | first2 = P.J. | last3 = Bedient | first3 = J.D | year = 1976 | title = Historical Roots of Elementary Mathematics | url = https://archive.org/details/historicalrootso0000bunt_a7i6/page/113/mode/1up | page = 113 | publisher = Courier Corporation | isbn = 978-0-486-25563-7 }} \frac{2 r \theta}{\pi}, the curve is given by \rho (\theta) = \frac{2 r \theta}{\pi \sin \theta}.

===Intersection of two polar curves=== The graphs of two polar functions r = f(\theta) and r = g(\theta) have possible intersections of three types:

In the origin, if the equations f(\theta) = 0 and g(\theta) = 0 have at least one solution each.

All the points [g(\theta_i),\theta_i] where \theta_i are solutions to the equation f(\theta+2k\pi)=g(\theta) where k is an integer.

All the points [g(\theta_i),\theta_i] where \theta_i are solutions to the equation f(\theta+(2k+1)\pi)=-g(\theta) where k is an integer.

{{Clear}}

==Calculus== [[Calculus]] can be applied to equations expressed in polar coordinates.{{Cite web |last=Husch, Lawrence S. |title=Areas Bounded by Polar Curves |url=http://archives.math.utk.edu/visual.calculus/5/polar.1/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000301151724/http://archives.math.utk.edu/visual.calculus/5/polar.1/index.html |archive-date=2000-03-01 |access-date=2006-11-25}}{{Cite web |last=Lawrence S. Husch |title=Tangent Lines to Polar Graphs |url=http://archives.math.utk.edu/visual.calculus/3/polar.1/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191121222301/http://archives.math.utk.edu/visual.calculus/3/polar.1/index.html |archive-date=2019-11-21 |access-date=2006-11-25}}

The angular coordinate ''φ'' is expressed in radians throughout this section, which is the conventional choice when doing calculus.

===Differential calculus=== Using {{math|1=''x'' = ''r'' cos ''φ'' }} and {{math|1=''y'' = ''r'' sin ''φ'' }}, one can derive a relationship between derivatives in Cartesian and polar coordinates. For a given function, ''u''(''x'',''y''), it follows that (by computing its [[total derivative]]s) or \begin{align} r \frac{du}{dr} &= r \frac{\partial u}{\partial x} \cos\varphi + r \frac{\partial u}{\partial y} \sin\varphi = x \frac{\partial u}{\partial x} + y \frac{\partial u}{\partial y}, \[2pt] \frac{du}{d\varphi} &= - \frac{\partial u}{\partial x} r \sin\varphi + \frac{\partial u}{\partial y} r \cos\varphi = -y \frac{\partial u}{\partial x} + x \frac{\partial u}{\partial y}. \end{align}

Hence, we have the following formula: \begin{align} r \frac{d}{dr} &= x \frac{\partial}{\partial x} + y \frac{\partial}{\partial y} \[2pt] \frac{d}{d\varphi} &= -y \frac{\partial}{\partial x} + x \frac{\partial}{\partial y}. \end{align}

Using the inverse coordinates transformation, an analogous reciprocal relationship can be derived between the derivatives. Given a function ''u''(''r'',''φ''), it follows that \begin{align} \frac{du}{dx} &= \frac{\partial u}{\partial r}\frac{\partial r}{\partial x} + \frac{\partial u}{\partial \varphi}\frac{\partial \varphi}{\partial x}, \[2pt] \frac{du}{dy} &= \frac{\partial u}{\partial r}\frac{\partial r}{\partial y} + \frac{\partial u}{\partial \varphi}\frac{\partial \varphi}{\partial y}, \end{align} or \begin{align} \frac{du}{dx} &= \frac{\partial u}{\partial r}\frac{x}{\sqrt{x^2+y^2}} - \frac{\partial u}{\partial \varphi}\frac{y}{x^2+y^2} \[2pt] &= \cos \varphi \frac{\partial u}{\partial r} - \frac{1}{r} \sin\varphi \frac{\partial u}{\partial \varphi}, \[2pt] \frac{du}{dy} &= \frac{\partial u}{\partial r}\frac{y}{\sqrt{x^2+y^2}} + \frac{\partial u}{\partial \varphi}\frac{x}{x^2+y^2} \[2pt] &= \sin\varphi \frac{\partial u}{\partial r} + \frac{1}{r} \cos\varphi \frac{\partial u}{\partial \varphi}. \end{align}

Hence, we have the following formulae: \begin{align} \frac{d}{dx} &= \cos \varphi \frac{\partial}{\partial r} - \frac{1}{r} \sin\varphi \frac{\partial}{\partial \varphi} \[2pt] \frac{d}{dy} &= \sin \varphi \frac{\partial}{\partial r} + \frac{1}{r} \cos\varphi \frac{\partial}{\partial \varphi}. \end{align}

To find the Cartesian slope of the tangent line to a polar curve ''r''(''φ'') at any given point, the curve is first expressed as a system of [[parametric equations]]. \begin{align} x &= r(\varphi)\cos\varphi \ y &= r(\varphi)\sin\varphi \end{align}

[[Derivative|Differentiating]] both equations with respect to ''φ'' yields \begin{align} \frac{dx}{d\varphi} &= r'(\varphi)\cos\varphi - r(\varphi)\sin\varphi \[2pt] \frac{dy}{d\varphi} &= r'(\varphi)\sin\varphi + r(\varphi)\cos\varphi. \end{align}

Dividing the second equation by the first yields the Cartesian slope of the tangent line to the curve at the point (r(\varphi), \varphi) :{{r|zw}}\frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{r'(\varphi)\sin\varphi + r(\varphi)\cos\varphi}{r'(\varphi)\cos\varphi-r(\varphi)\sin\varphi}.

For other useful formulas including divergence, gradient, and Laplacian in polar coordinates, see [[curvilinear coordinates]].

===Integral calculus===

====Arc length==== The arc length (length of a line segment) defined by a polar function is found by the integration over the curve ''r''(''φ''). Let ''L'' denote this length along the curve starting from points ''A'' through to point ''B'', where these points correspond to ''φ'' = ''a'' and ''φ'' = ''b'' such that {{math|0 < ''b'' − ''a'' < 2''π''}}. The length of ''L'' is given by the following integral L = \int_a^b \sqrt{ \left[r(\varphi)\right]^2 + \left[ {\tfrac{dr(\varphi) }{ d\varphi }} \right] ^2 } d\varphi

====Area==== [[Image:Polar coordinates integration region.svg|thumb|The integration region ''R'' is bounded by the curve ''r''(''φ'') and the rays ''φ'' = ''a'' and ''φ'' = ''b''.]] Let ''R'' denote the region enclosed by a curve ''r''(''φ'') and the rays ''φ'' = ''a'' and ''φ'' = ''b'', where {{nowrap|0 < ''b'' − ''a'' ≤ 2{{pi}}}}. Then, the area of ''R'' is \frac12\int_a^b \left[r(\varphi)\right]^2, d\varphi.

[[Image:Polar coordinates integration Riemann sum.svg|thumb|The region ''R'' is approximated by ''n'' sectors (here, ''n'' = 5).]] [[File:Planimeter.jpg|thumb|A [[planimeter]], which mechanically computes polar integrals]] This result can be found as follows. First, the interval {{nowrap|[''a'', ''b'']}} is divided into ''n'' subintervals, where ''n'' is some positive integer. Thus Δ''φ'', the angle measure of each subinterval, is equal to {{math|''b'' − ''a''}} (the total angle measure of the interval), divided by ''n'', the number of subintervals. For each subinterval ''i'' = 1, 2, ..., ''n'', let ''φ''''i'' be the midpoint of the subinterval, and construct a [[circular sector|sector]] with the center at the pole, radius ''r''(''φ''''i''), [[central angle]] Δ''φ'' and arc length ''r''(''φ''''i'')Δ''φ''. The area of each constructed sector is therefore equal to \left[r(\varphi_i)\right]^2 \pi \cdot \frac{\Delta \varphi}{2\pi} = \frac{1}{2}\left[r(\varphi_i)\right]^2 \Delta \varphi. Hence, the total area of all of the sectors is \sum_{i=1}^n \tfrac12r(\varphi_i)^2,\Delta\varphi.

As the number of subintervals ''n'' is increased, the approximation of the area improves. Taking {{nowrap|''n'' → ∞}}, the sum becomes the [[Riemann sum]] for the above integral.

A mechanical device that computes area integrals is the [[planimeter]], which measures the area of plane figures by tracing them out: this replicates integration in polar coordinates by adding a joint so that the 2-element [[Linkage (mechanical)|linkage]] effects [[Green's theorem]], converting the quadratic polar integral to a linear integral.

=====Area generalization===== Using [[Cartesian coordinates]], an infinitesimal area element can be calculated as ''dA'' = ''dx'' ''dy''. The [[integration by substitution#Substitution for multiple variables|substitution rule for multiple integrals]] states that, when using other coordinates, the [[Jacobian matrix and determinant|Jacobian]] determinant of the coordinate conversion formula has to be considered: J = \det \frac{\partial(x, y)}{\partial(r, \varphi)} = \begin{vmatrix} \frac{\partial x}{\partial r} & \frac{\partial x}{\partial \varphi} \[2pt] \frac{\partial y}{\partial r} & \frac{\partial y}{\partial \varphi} \end{vmatrix} = \begin{vmatrix} \cos\varphi & -r\sin\varphi \ \sin\varphi & r\cos\varphi \end{vmatrix} = r\cos^2\varphi + r\sin^2\varphi = r.

Hence, an area element in polar coordinates can be written as dA = dx,dy\ = J,dr,d\varphi = r,dr,d\varphi.

Now, a function, that is given in polar coordinates, can be integrated as follows: \iint_R f(x, y), dA = \int_a^b \int_0^{r(\varphi)} f(r, \varphi),r,dr,d\varphi.

Here, ''R'' is the same region as above, namely, the region enclosed by a curve ''r''(''φ'') and the rays ''φ'' = ''a'' and ''φ'' = ''b''. The formula for the area of ''R'' is retrieved by taking ''f'' identically equal to 1.

[[Image:E^(-x^2).svg|thumb|right|A graph of f(x) = e^{-x^2} and the area between the function and the x-axis, which is equal to \sqrt{\pi}.]]

A more surprising application of this result yields the [[Gaussian integral]]: \int_{-\infty}^\infty e^{-x^2} , dx = \sqrt\pi.

===Vector calculus=== {{redirect|Plane of motion|the anatomical term|Planes of motion}}

[[Vector calculus]] can also be applied to polar coordinates. For a planar motion, let \mathbf{r} be the position vector {{math|(''r'' cos(''φ''), ''r'' sin(''φ''))}}, with ''r'' and {{math|''φ''}} depending on time ''t''.

{{anchor|Radial, transverse, normal}}We define an [[orthonormal basis]] with three unit vectors: ''radial, transverse, and normal directions''. The ''radial direction'' is defined by normalizing \mathbf{r}: \hat{\mathbf{r}} = (\cos(\varphi), \sin(\varphi)) {{anchor|Plane of motion}}Radial and velocity directions span the ''plane of motion'', whose [[normal direction]] is denoted \hat{\mathbf{k}}: \hat{\mathbf{k}} = \hat{\mathbf{v}} \times \hat{\mathbf{r}}. The ''transverse direction'' is perpendicular to both radial and normal directions: \hat \boldsymbol \varphi = (-\sin(\varphi), \cos(\varphi)) = \hat{\mathbf{k}} \times \hat{\mathbf{r}} \ ,

Then, position and velocity can be expressed as follows \begin{align} \mathbf{r} &= (x,\ y) = r(\cos\varphi,\ \sin\varphi) = r \hat{\mathbf{r}}\ , \[1.5ex] \dot{\mathbf{r}} &= \left(\dot{x},\ \dot{y}\right) = \dot{r}(\cos\varphi,\ \sin\varphi) + r\dot{\varphi}(-\sin\varphi,\ \cos\varphi) = \dot{r}\hat{\mathbf{r}} + r\dot{\varphi}\hat{\boldsymbol{\varphi}}\ ,\[1.5ex] \end{align} with the [[angular rate]] \dot{\varphi} necessarily in [[radians per second]] (or multiples thereof), {{em|not}} in degrees per second. Acceleration can be expressed as: \begin{align} \ddot{\mathbf{r}} &= \left(\ddot{x},\ \ddot{y}\right) \[1ex] &= \ddot{r}(\cos\varphi,\ \sin\varphi) + 2\dot{r}\dot{\varphi}(-\sin\varphi,\ \cos\varphi) + r\ddot{\varphi}(-\sin\varphi,\ \cos\varphi) - r\dot{\varphi}^2(\cos\varphi,\ \sin\varphi) \[1ex] &= \left(\ddot{r} - r\dot{\varphi}^2\right) \hat{\mathbf{r}} + \left(r\ddot{\varphi} + 2\dot{r}\dot{\varphi}\right) \hat{\boldsymbol{\varphi}} \[1ex] &= \left(\ddot{r} - r\dot{\varphi}^2\right) \hat{\mathbf{r}} + \frac{1}{r}; \frac{d}{dt} \left(r^2\dot{\varphi}\right) \hat{\boldsymbol{\varphi}}. \end{align} This equation can be obtained by taking the derivative of the function and derivatives of the unit basis vectors.

For a curve in 2D where the parameter is \theta the previous equations simplify to: \begin{aligned} \mathbf{r} &= r(\theta) \hat \mathbf{e}_r \[1ex] \frac {d\mathbf{r}}{d\theta} &= \frac {dr} {d\theta} \hat \mathbf{e}r + r \hat \mathbf{e}\theta\[1ex] \frac {d^2\mathbf{r}}{d\theta^2} &= \left(\frac {d^2 r} {d\theta^2}-r\right) \hat \mathbf{e}r + \frac {dr} {d\theta} \hat \mathbf{e}\theta \end{aligned}

====Centrifugal and Coriolis terms==== {{See also|Centrifugal force}} The term r\dot\varphi^2 is sometimes referred to as the ''centripetal acceleration'', and the term 2\dot r \dot\varphi as the ''Coriolis acceleration''. For example, see Shankar.{{Cite book |last=Ramamurti Shankar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2zypV5EbKuIC&q=Coriolis+%22polar+coordinates%22&pg=PA81 |title=Principles of Quantum Mechanics |publisher=Springer |year=1994 |isbn=0-306-44790-8 |edition=2nd |page=81}} These terms, which appear when acceleration is expressed in polar coordinates, are a mathematical consequence of differentiation; they appear whenever polar coordinates are used. In planar particle dynamics, these accelerations appear when setting up Newton's [[Newton's second law|second law of motion]] in a rotating frame of reference. Here, these extra terms are often called [[fictitious force]]s; fictitious because they are simply a result of a change in coordinate frame. That does not mean they do not exist; rather, they exist only in the rotating frame. {{multiple image |total_width=800 |align = center |image1 = Position vector plane polar coords.svg |caption1 = Position vector '''r''', always points radially from the origin. |image2 = Velocity vector plane polar coords.svg |caption2 = Velocity vector '''v''', always tangent to the path of motion. |image3 = Acceleration vector plane polar coords.svg |caption3 = Acceleration vector '''a''', not parallel to the radial motion but offset by the angular and Coriolis accelerations, nor tangent to the path but offset by the centripetal and radial accelerations. |footer = Kinematic vectors in plane polar coordinates. Notice the setup is not restricted to two-dimensional space, but a plane in any higher dimension. }}

[[Image:Co-rotating frame vector.svg|thumb|Inertial frame of reference ''S'' and instantaneous non-inertial co-rotating frame of reference ''S′''. The co-rotating frame rotates at angular rate Ω equal to the rate of rotation of the particle about the origin of ''S′'' at the particular moment ''t''. Particle is located at vector position ''r''(''t'') and unit vectors are shown in the radial direction to the particle from the origin, and also in the direction of increasing angle ''ϕ'' normal to the radial direction. These unit vectors need not be related to the tangent and normal to the path. Also, the radial distance ''r'' need not be related to the radius of curvature of the path.]]

=====Co-rotating frame===== {{broader|Rotating frame}}

For a particle in planar motion, one approach to attaching physical significance to these terms is based on the concept of an instantaneous '''co-rotating frame of reference'''.{{Cite book |last=John R Taylor |title=Classical Mechanics |publisher=University Science Books |year=2005 |isbn=1-891389-22-X |page=§9.10, pp. 358–359}} To define a co-rotating [[frame of reference]], first an origin is selected from which the distance ''r''(''t'') to the particle is defined. An [[axis of rotation]] is set up that is perpendicular to the plane of motion of the particle, and passing through this origin. Then, at the selected moment ''t'', the [[angular rate]] of the co-rotating frame Ω is made to match the rate of rotation of the particle about this axis, ''dφ''/''dt''. Next, the terms in the acceleration in the inertial frame are related to those in the co-rotating frame.

Let the location of the particle in the inertial frame be (''r''(''t''), ''φ''(''t'')), and in the co-rotating frame be denoted primed (''r''′(t), ''φ''′(t)). Because the co-rotating frame rotates at the same rate as the particle, ''dφ''′/''dt'' = 0. The fictitious centrifugal force in the co-rotating frame is ''mr''Ω2, radially outward. The velocity of the particle in the co-rotating frame also is radially outward, because ''dφ''′/''dt'' = 0. The ''fictitious Coriolis force'' therefore has a value −2''m''(''dr''/''dt'')Ω, pointed in the direction of increasing ''φ'' only. Thus, using these forces in Newton's second law we find: \mathbf{F} + \mathbf{F}\text{cf} + \mathbf{F}\text{Cor} = m\ddot{\mathbf{r}} , , where over dots represent derivatives with respect to time, and '''F''' is the net real force (as opposed to the fictitious forces). In terms of components, this vector equation becomes: \begin{align} F_r + mr\Omega^2 &= m\ddot{r} \ F_\varphi - 2m\dot{r}\Omega &= mr\ddot{\varphi} \ , \end{align} which can be compared to the equations for the inertial frame: \begin{align} F_r &= m\ddot{r} - mr\dot{\varphi}^2 \ F_\varphi &= mr\ddot{\varphi} + 2m\dot{r}\dot{\varphi} \ . \end{align}

This comparison, plus the recognition that by the definition of the co-rotating frame at time ''t'' it has a rate of rotation Ω = ''dφ''/''dt'', shows that we can interpret the terms in the acceleration (multiplied by the mass of the particle) as found in the inertial frame as the negative of the centrifugal and Coriolis forces that would be seen in the instantaneous, non-inertial co-rotating frame.

For general motion of a particle (as opposed to simple circular motion), the centrifugal and Coriolis forces in a particle's frame of reference commonly are referred to the instantaneous [[osculating circle]] of its motion, not to a fixed center of polar coordinates. For more detail, see [[Centripetal force#Local coordinates|centripetal force]].

== Differential geometry == In the modern terminology of [[differential geometry]], polar coordinates provide [[coordinate charts]] for the [[differentiable manifold]] {{math|'''R'''2 \ {(0,0)}}}, the plane minus the origin. In these coordinates, the Euclidean [[metric tensor]] is given byds^2 = dr^2 + r^2 d\theta^2.This can be seen via the change of variables formula for the metric tensor, or by computing the [[differential form]]s ''dx'', ''dy'' via the [[exterior derivative]] of the 0-forms {{math|1=''x'' = ''r'' cos(''θ'')}}, {{math|1=''y'' = ''r'' sin(''θ'')}} and substituting them in the Euclidean metric tensor {{math|1=''ds''2 = ''dx''2 + ''dy''2}}.

{{Collapse top|title=An elementary proof of the formula}} Let p_1=(x_1,y_1)=(r_1,\theta_1), and p_2=(x_2,y_2)=(r_2,\theta_2) be two points in the plane given by their cartesian and polar coordinates. Then :ds^2=dx^2+dy^2=(x_2-x_1)^2+(y_2-y_1)^2. Since dx^2=(r_2\cos\theta_2-r_1\cos\theta_1)^2, and dy^2=(r_2\sin\theta_2-r_1\sin\theta_1)^2, we get that :ds^2=r_2^2\cos^2\theta_2-2r_1r_2\cos\theta_1\cos\theta_2+r_1^2\cos^2\theta_1+r_2^2\sin^2\theta_2-2r_1r_2\sin\theta_1\sin\theta_2+r_1^2\sin^2\theta_1= :r_2^2(\cos^2\theta_2+\sin^2\theta_2)+r_1^2(\cos^2\theta_1+\sin^2\theta_1)-2r_1r_2(\cos\theta_1\cos\theta_2+\sin\theta_1\sin\theta_2)= :r_1^2+r_2^2-2r_1r_2(1-1+\cos\theta_1\cos\theta_2+\sin\theta_1\sin\theta_2)= :(r_2-r_1)^2+2r_1r_2(1-\cos\theta_1\cos\theta_2-\sin\theta_1\sin\theta_2). Now we use the trigonometric identity \cos(\theta_2-\theta_1)=\cos\theta_1\cos\theta_2+\sin\theta_1\sin\theta_2 to proceed: :ds^2=dr^2+2r_1r_2(1-\cos d\theta). If the radial and angular quantities are near to each other, and therefore near to a common quantity r and \theta, we have that r_1r_2\approx r^2. Moreover, the cosine of d\theta can be approximated with the Taylor series of the cosine up to linear terms: :\cos d\theta\approx1-\frac{d\theta^2}{2}, so that 1-\cos d\theta\approx\frac{d\theta^2}{2}, and 2r_1r_2(1-\cos d\theta)\approx2r^2\frac{d\theta^2}{2}=r^2d\theta^2. Therefore, around an infinitesimally small domain of any point, :ds^2=dr^2+r^2d\theta^2, as stated.

{{Collapse bottom}}

An [[Orthonormality|orthonormal]] [[Moving frame|frame]] with respect to this metric is given bye_r = \frac{\partial}{\partial r}, \quad e_\theta = \frac1r \frac{\partial}{\partial \theta},with [[Moving frame#Coframes|dual coframe]]e^r = dr, \quad e^\theta = r d\theta.The [[connection form]] relative to this frame and the [[Levi-Civita connection]] is given by the skew-symmetric matrix of 1-forms{\omega^i}_j = \begin{pmatrix} 0 & -d\theta \ d\theta & 0\end{pmatrix}and hence the [[curvature form]] {{math|1=Ω = ''dω'' + ''ω''∧''ω''}} vanishes. Therefore, as expected, the punctured plane is a [[flat manifold]].

==Extensions in three-dimensional space== The polar coordinate system is extended into three dimensions with two different coordinate systems, the [[Cylindrical coordinate system|cylindrical]] and [[Spherical coordinate system|spherical coordinate systems]], both of which include two-dimensional or planar polar coordinates as a subset. In essence, the cylindrical coordinate system extends polar coordinates by adding an additional distance coordinate, while the spherical system instead adds an additional angular coordinate.

===Cylindrical coordinates=== {{main|Cylindrical coordinate system}} [[Image:Coord system CY 1.svg|thumb|240px|A cylindrical coordinate system with radial \rho , angle \varphi , and height z .]] The [[cylindrical coordinate system]] is a coordinate system that essentially extends the two-dimensional polar coordinate system by adding a third coordinate measuring the height of a point above the plane, similar to the way in which the [[Cartesian coordinate system]] is extended into three dimensions. The third coordinate is denoted z , making the three cylindrical coordinates (r, \theta, z) . Thus, the three cylindrical coordinates can be converted to Cartesian coordinates by \begin{align} x &= r , \cos\theta \ y &= r , \sin\theta \ z &= z. \end{align}

===Spherical coordinates=== {{main|Spherical coordinate system}} [[File:3D Spherical.svg|thumb|A spherical coordinate system. Convened according to [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] [[ISO/IEC 80000|80000-2:2019]], r , \theta , and \varphi are respectively designates radial distance, polar angle (angle with respect to positive polar axis), and azimuthal angle (angle of rotation from the initial meridian plane).]] Polar coordinates can also be extended into three dimensions using the coordinates (ρ, φ, θ), where ρ is the distance from the pole, φ is the angle from the z-axis (called the colatitude or zenith and measured from 0 to 180°), and θ is the angle from the x-axis (as in the polar coordinates). This coordinate system, called the [[spherical coordinate system]], is similar to the [[latitude]] and [[longitude]] system used for Earth, with the latitude δ being the complement of φ, determined by δ = 90° − φ, and the longitude ''l'' being measured by ''l'' = θ − 180°.{{cite web|url=http://www.math.montana.edu/frankw/ccp/multiworld/multipleIVP/spherical/body.htm|title=Spherical Coordinates|first=Frank|last=Wattenberg|date=1997|accessdate=2006-09-16}}

The three spherical coordinates are converted to Cartesian coordinates by : \begin{align} x &= \rho , \sin\varphi , \cos\theta \ y &= \rho , \sin\varphi , \sin\theta \ z &= \rho , \cos\varphi. \end{align}

==Applications== Polar coordinates are two-dimensional and thus they can be used only where point positions lie on a single two-dimensional plane. They are most appropriate in any context where the phenomenon being considered is inherently tied to direction and length from a center point. For instance, the examples above show how elementary polar equations suffice to define curves—such as the Archimedean spiral—whose equation in the Cartesian coordinate system would be much more intricate. Moreover, many physical systems—such as those concerned with bodies moving around a central point or with phenomena originating from a central point—are simpler and more intuitive to model using polar coordinates. The initial motivation for the introduction of the polar system was the study of [[circular motion|circular]] and [[orbital motion]].

===Position and navigation=== Polar coordinates are used often in [[navigation]] as the destination or direction of travel can be given as an angle and distance from the object being considered. For instance, [[aircraft]] use a slightly modified version of the polar coordinates for navigation. In this system, the one generally used for any sort of navigation, the 0° ray is generally called heading 360, and the angles continue in a clockwise direction, rather than counterclockwise, as in the mathematical system. Heading 360 corresponds to [[magnetic north]], while headings 90, 180, and 270 correspond to magnetic east, south, and west, respectively.{{Cite web |last=Santhi |first=Sumrit |title=Aircraft Navigation System |url=http://www.thaitechnics.com/nav/adf.html |access-date=2006-11-26}} Thus, an aircraft traveling 5 nautical miles due east will be traveling 5 units at heading 90 (read [[ICAO spelling alphabet|zero-niner-zero]] by [[air traffic control]]).{{Cite web |title=Emergency Procedures |url=https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aircraft/airplane_handbook/media/faa-h-8083-3a-7of7.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603111635/http://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aircraft/airplane_handbook/media/faa-h-8083-3a-7of7.pdf |archive-date=2013-06-03 |access-date=2007-01-15}}

===Modeling=== Systems displaying [[radial symmetry]] provide natural settings for the polar coordinate system, with the central point acting as the pole. A prime example of this usage is the [[groundwater flow equation]] when applied to radially symmetric wells. Systems with a [[central force|radial force]] are also good candidates for the use of the polar coordinate system. These systems include [[gravitation|gravitational fields]], which obey the [[inverse-square law]], as well as systems with [[point source]]s, such as [[antenna (radio)|radio antennas]].

Radially asymmetric systems may also be modeled with polar coordinates. For example, a [[microphone]]'s [[Microphone pick up patterns|pickup pattern]] illustrates its proportional response to an incoming sound from a given direction, and these patterns can be represented as polar curves. The curve for a standard cardioid microphone, the most common unidirectional microphone, can be represented as {{nowrap|''r'' {{=}} 0.5 + 0.5sin(''ϕ'')}} at its target design frequency.{{r|eargle}} The pattern shifts toward omnidirectionality at lower frequencies.

==See also== {{Portal|Mathematics}} *[[Curvilinear coordinates]] *[[List of common coordinate transformations]] *[[Log-polar coordinates]] *[[Polar decomposition]] *[[Unit circle]]

==References== {{cite book | last1 = Anton | first1 = Howard | last2 = Bivens | first2 = Irl C. | last3 = Davis | first3 = Stephen | title = Calculus: Early Transcendentals | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=sRU-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA607 | page = 607 | year = 2022 | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | isbn = 978-1-119-77818-9 }}

{{cite journal | last = Boyer | first = C. B. | year = 1949 | title = Newton as an Originator of Polar Coordinates | journal = [[American Mathematical Monthly]] | publisher = [[Mathematical Association of America]] | volume = 56 | issue = 2 | pages = 73–78 | doi = 10.2307/2306162 | jstor = 2306162 }}

{{cite book | last = Brown | first = Richard G. | url = https://archive.org/details/advancedmathemat00rich_0 | title = Advanced Mathematics: Precalculus with Discrete Mathematics and Data Analysis | publisher = McDougal Littell | year = 1997 | isbn = 0395771145 | editor-last = Gleason | editor-first = Andrew M. | editor-link = Andrew M. Gleason }}

{{cite journal | last = Coolidge | first = Julian | author-link = Julian Lowell Coolidge | year = 1952 | title = The Origin of Polar Coordinates | url = http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Extras/Coolidge_Polars.html | journal = [[American Mathematical Monthly]] | publisher= [[Mathematical Association of America]] | volume = 59 | issue = 2 | pages = 78–85 | doi = 10.2307/2307104 | jstor = 2307104 }}

{{cite book | last1 = Cundy | first1 = H. Martyn | last2 = Rollett | first2 = A. P. | title = Mathematical Models | title-link = Mathematical Models (Cundy and Rollett) | edition = 2nd | year = 1961 | publisher = Oxford University Press | page = 73 }}

{{cite book | last = Eargle | first = John | author-link = John M. Eargle | title = Handbook of Recording Engineering | publisher = Springer | year = 2005 | edition = 4th }}

{{cite web | title= ISO 80000-2: 2019 Quantities and units – Part 2: Mathematics | url = https://www.iso.org/standard/64973.html | website = ISO | date = 19 May 2020 | language = en }}

{{cite book | last = King | first = David A. | title= Mathematics and the Divine: A Historical Study | publisher = Elsevier | year = 2005 | isbn = 0444503285 | editor-last1 = Koetsier | editor-first1 = Teun | editor-last2 = Luc | editor-first2 = Bergmans | pages = 162–178 | chapter = The Sacred Geography of Islam | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=AMOQZfrZq-EC&pg=PA161 }}

{{cite book | last = Smith | first = Julius O. | title = Mathematics of the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) | publisher = W3K Publishing | year = 2003 | isbn = 0-9745607-0-7 | chapter = Euler's Identity | chapter-url = http://ccrma-www.stanford.edu/~jos/mdft/Euler_s_Identity.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060915004724/http://ccrma-www.stanford.edu/~jos/mdft/Euler_s_Identity.html | archive-date = 2006-09-15 | url-status = dead }}

{{cite book | last1 = Stewart | first1 = Ian | last2 = Tall | first2 = David | title = Complex Analysis (the Hitchhiker's Guide to the Plane) | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1983 | isbn = 0521287634 }}

{{cite book | last1 = Torrence | first1 = Bruce Follett | last2 = Torrence | first2 = Eve | author-link2 = Eve Torrence | title = The Student's Introduction to Mathematica | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | year = 1999 | isbn = 0521594618 }}

{{cite book | last1 = Varberg | first1 = Dale E. | last2 = Purcell | first2 = Edwin J. | last3 = Rigdon | first3 = Steven E. | title = Calculus | year = 2007 | publisher = [[Pearson Prentice Hall]] | edition = 9th | isbn = 9780131469686 | page = 539 }}

{{cite book | title = Precalculus | last = Young | first = Cynthia Y. | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=IOyaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA620 | page = 620 | publisher = Wiley | year = 2018 | isbn = 978-1-119-37058-1 }}

{{cite book | last1 = Zill | first1 = Dennis G. | last2 = Wright | first2 = Warren S. | title = Single Variable Calculus: Early Transcendentals: . | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=dV4suxc526cC&pg=PA585 | page = 585 | publisher = Jones & Bartlett | year = 2011 | edition = 4th | isbn = 978-1-4496-9055-7 }}

===General references=== *{{Cite book |last1=Adams |first1=Robert |title=Calculus: a complete course |last2=Christopher Essex |publisher=Pearson Canada Inc. |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-321-78107-9 |edition=Eighth}} *{{Cite book |last1=Anton |first1=Howard |title=Calculus |last2=Irl Bivens |last3=Stephen Davis |publisher=Anton Textbooks, Inc. |year=2002 |isbn=0-471-38157-8 |edition=Seventh}} *{{Cite book |last1=Finney |first1=Ross |url=https://archive.org/details/calculusgraphica00ross |title=Calculus: Graphical, Numerical, Algebraic |last2=George Thomas |last3=Franklin Demana |last4=Bert Waits |date=June 1994 |publisher=Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. |isbn=0-201-55478-X |edition=Single Variable Version}}

==External links== {{wikibooks|Calculus|Polar Integration}}

• {{springer|title=Polar coordinates|id=p/p073410}} *[http://www.random-science-tools.com/maths/coordinate-converter.htm Coordinate Converter — converts between polar, Cartesian and spherical coordinates] *[http://scratch.mit.edu/projects/nevit/691690 Polar Coordinate System Dynamic Demo]

{{Orthogonal coordinate systems}} {{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Polar Coordinate System}} [[Category:Two-dimensional coordinate systems]] [[Category:Orthogonal coordinate systems]]